Alexander III The Great 336-323 BC .Silver Drachm .Macedonian Kingdom 4.1 grams

Description: Alexander III of Macedon(Ancient Greek:,romanized:Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known asAlexander the Great,was a king of theancient Greekkingdom ofMacedon.He succeeded his fatherPhilip IIto the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthymilitary campaignthroughoutWestern AsiaandEgypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of thelargest empiresin history, stretching fromGreeceto northwesternIndia.He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored byAristotle. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, hecampaigned in the Balkansand reasserted control overThraceandIllyriabefore marching on the city ofThebes, which wassubsequently destroyed in battle. Alexander then led theLeague of Corinth, and used his authority to launch thepan-Hellenic projectenvisaged by his father, assuming leadership over allGreeksin their conquest ofPersia.[5][6] In 334 BC, he invaded theAchaemenid Persian Empireand begana series of campaignsthat lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest ofAsia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those atIssusandGaugamela; he subsequently overthrewDarius IIIand conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[b]After the fall of Persia, theMacedonian Empireheld a vast swath of territory between theAdriatic Seaand theIndus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" andinvaded Indiain 326 BC, achieving an important victory overPorus, an ancient Indian king of present-dayPunjab, at theBattle of the Hydaspes. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at theBeas Riverand later died in 323 BC inBabylon, the city ofMesopotamiathat he had planned to establish as his empire's capital.Alexander's deathleft unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion ofArabia. In the years following his death,a series of civil warsbroke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of theDiadochi. With his death marking the start of theHellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such asGreco-BuddhismandHellenistic Judaism.He founded more than twenty cities, with the most prominent being the city ofAlexandriainEgypt. Alexander's settlement ofGreek colonistsand the resulting spread ofGreek cultureled to the overwhelming dominance ofHellenistic civilizationand influence as far east as theIndian subcontinent. The Hellenistic period developed through theRoman Empireinto modernWestern culture; theGreek languagebecame thelingua francaof the region and was the predominant language of theByzantine Empireup until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Greek-speaking communitiesin central Anatoliaandin far-eastern Anatoliasurvived until theGreek genocideandGreekTurkish population exchangesof the early 20th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould ofAchilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves, and his tactics remain a significant subject of study inmilitary academiesworldwide.Lineage and childhood Alexander III was born inPella, the capital of theKingdom of Macedon, on the sixth day of theancient Greek monthofHekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain). He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon,Philip II, and his fourth wife,Olympias(daughter ofNeoptolemus I, king ofEpirus).Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.According to theancient GreekbiographerPlutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with asealengraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father wasZeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing asiegeon the city ofPotideaon the peninsula ofChalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his generalParmenionhad defeated the combinedIllyrianandPaeonianarmies and that his horses had won at theOlympic Games. It was also said that on this day, theTemple of ArtemisinEphesus, one of theSeven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This ledHegesias of Magnesiato say that it had burnt down becauseArtemiswas away, attending the birth of Alexander.Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception. In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,Lanike, sister of Alexander's future generalCleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strictLeonidas, a relative of his mother, and byLysimachus of Acarnania.Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play thelyre, ride, fight, and hunt.When Alexander was ten years old, a trader fromThessalybrought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteentalents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.Alexander named itBucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far asIndia. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him,Bucephala. Education When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for atutor, and considered such academics asIsocratesandSpeusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of theAcademyto take up the post. In the end, Philip choseAristotleand provided the Temple of the Nymphs atMiezaas a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown ofStageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile. Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such asPtolemy,Hephaistion, andCassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works ofHomer, and in particular theIliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns. Alexander was able to quoteEuripidesfrom memory. During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposedArtaxerxes III.Among them wereArtabazos IIand his daughterBarsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well asAmminapes, futuresatrapof Alexander, or a Persian nobleman namedSisines. This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. Sudawrites thatAnaximenes of Lampsacuswas one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. Heir of Philip II Regency and ascent of Macedon At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against theThraciansto the north, which left Alexander in charge asregentandheir apparent. During Philip's absence, theThraciantribe ofMaedirevolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, namedAlexandropolis, was founded. Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southernThrace. Campaigning against the Greek city ofPerinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city ofAmphissabegan to work lands that were sacred toApollonearDelphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attackIllyriainstead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south throughThermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city ofElatea, only a few days' march from bothAthensandThebes. The Athenians, led byDemosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of theAmphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him nearChaeronea,Boeotia. During the ensuingBattle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenianhoplitesto follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated. After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reachedSparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war.AtCorinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the oldanti-Persian allianceof theGreco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then namedHegemon(often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as theLeague of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack thePersian Empire. Exile and return When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and marriedCleopatra Eurydicein 338 BC, the niece of his generalAttalus.The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.During thewedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another." In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, KingAlexander I of EpirusinDodona, capital of theMolossians. He continued to Illyria,where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps withGlaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend,Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties. In the following year, the Persiansatrap(governor) ofCaria,Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother,Philip Arrhidaeus.[42]Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor,Thessalusof Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends,Harpalus,Nearchus,PtolemyandErigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. KINGof Macedon Accession Further information:Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) In summer 336BC, while atAegaeattending the wedding of his daughterCleopatrato Olympias's brother,Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of hisbodyguards,Pausanias.[e]As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions,PerdiccasandLeonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles andarmyat the age of 20. Consolidation of power Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the formerAmyntas IV, executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region ofLyncestiskilled for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third,Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle. Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass betweenMount OlympusandMount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards thePeloponnese. Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south toCorinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famousencounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynicoccurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."At Corinth, Alexander took the title ofHegemon("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising. Balkan campaign Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting fromAmphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and atMount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.The Macedonians marched into the country of theTriballi, and defeated their army near theLyginusriver (atributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to theDanube, encountering theGetaetribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalryskirmish. News then reached Alexander that theIllyrianchieftainCleitusandKing Glaukiasof theTaulantiiwere in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier. Destruction of Thebes While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexanderrazed the cityand divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leavingAntipateras regent. Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire After his victory at theBattle of Chaeronea (338 BC),Philip IIbegan the work of establishing himself ashgemn(Greek:) of a league which according toDiodoruswas to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in480and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sentParmenion, withAmyntas, Andromenes andAttalus, and an army of 10,000 men intoAnatoliato make preparations for an invasion. At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated nearMagnesiaby the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenaryMemnon of Rhodes. Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed theHellespontin 334BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers fromThrace,Paionia, andIllyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy. After an initial victory against Persian forces at theBattle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury ofSardis; he then proceeded along theIoniancoast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities.Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, atHalicarnassus, inCaria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scalesiege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captainMemnon of Rhodesand the Persiansatrapof Caria,Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty,Ada, who adopted Alexander. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainousLyciaand thePamphylianplain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. AtTermessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm thePisidiancity. At the ancient Phrygian capital ofGordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvableGordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king ofAsia".[69]According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. The Levant and Syria In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed theTaurusintoCilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius atIssus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his motherSisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.He offered apeace treatythat included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000talentsfor his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.Alexander proceeded to take possession ofSyria, and most of the coast of theLevant.In the following year, 332BC, he was forced to attackTyre, which he captured after a long and difficultsiege.The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold intoslavery. Egypt When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route toEgyptquickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance atGaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner - nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but, early in 331 BC, he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians. Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at theSiwa Oasis.He was pronounced son of the deityAmunat theOracleofSiwa Oasisin theLibyandesert.[80]Henceforth, Alexander often referred toZeus-Ammonas his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with theHorns of Ammonas a symbol of his divinity.The Greeks interpreted this message - one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs - as a prophecy. During his stay in Egypt, he foundedAlexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of thePtolemaic Kingdomafter his death.Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305-30 BC) after the death of Alexander. Assyria and Babylonia Leaving Egypt in 331BC, Alexander marched eastward intoAchaemenid AssyriainUpper Mesopotamia(now northernIraq) and defeated Darius again at theBattle of Gaugamela. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far asArbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.Darius fled over the mountains toEcbatana(modernHamadan) while Alexander capturedBabylon. Babylonian astronomical diariessay that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses". Persia From Babylon, Alexander went toSusa, one of theAchaemenidcapitals, and captured its treasury.[85]He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital ofPersepolisvia the PersianRoyal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of thePersian Gates(in the modernZagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army underAriobarzanesand then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace ofXerxes Iand spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of theAcropolis of Athensduring theSecond Persian Warby Xerxes;PlutarchandDiodorusallege that Alexander's companion, thehetaeraThas, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.Plutarchclaims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.Curtiusclaims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects? Fall of the Persian Empire and the East Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner byBessus, hisBactriansatrap and kinsman.As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch aguerrillacampaign against Alexander.Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of theIranologistPierre Briant"may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as thelast of the Achaemenids." Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modernKandaharin Afghanistan, andAlexandria Eschate("The Furthest") in modernTajikistan. The campaign took Alexander throughMedia,Parthia,Aria(West Afghanistan),Drangiana,Arachosia(South and Central Afghanistan),Bactria(North and Central Afghanistan), andScythia. In 329 BC,Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus toPtolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on theJaxartesdealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at theBattle of Jaxartesand immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace. Problems and plots During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom ofproskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.The Greeks however regarded the gesture ofproskynesisas the province ofdeitiesand believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved forIraniansand to a major degreePersiannoblemen.The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.[102]This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.Pierre Briantexplains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace atPersepolisin conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III". A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thusParmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury atEcbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation atMaracanda(modern daySamarkandinUzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royalpages. His official historian,CallisthenesofOlynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in theAnabasis of Alexander,Arrianstates that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on therackas punishment, and likely died soon after.It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.Coinage The conquest byPhilip IIofPangaeumand then of the island ofThasosbetween 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control. Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage inCiliciainTarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.Alexander minted goldstaters, silvertetradrachmsanddrachims, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head ofAthenaon the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse.The silver coinage had a beardless head ofHeracleswearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse andZeusaetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary,Dium.However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian godSandas, worshipped atTarsus.The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the godBaaltars(Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrapMazaeusbefore Alexander's conquest. Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all thesatrapiesof the empire. Indian campaign Main article:Indian campaign of Alexander the Great Forays into the Indian subcontinent ThePhalanxAttacking the Centre in theBattle of the Hydaspesby Andr Castaigne (18981899) Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent After the death ofSpitamenesand his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna inOld Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to theIndian subcontinent. He invited thechieftainsof the former satrapy ofGandhara(a region presently straddling easternAfghanistanand northernPakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority.Omphis(Indian nameAmbhi), the ruler ofTaxila, whose kingdom extended from theIndusto theHydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including theAspasioiandAssakenoisections of theKambojas(known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[120]Ambhihastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assistedHephaestionandPerdiccasin constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends atHund,[121]supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of theMacedonianking, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in thebattle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit ofPorus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death ofPhilip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces atTriparadisus, 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi ofKunarvalleys, the Guraeans of theGuraeusvalley, and the Assakenoi of theSwatandBunervalleys.A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora andAornos. The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According toCurtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress ofAornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle againstKing Porus, who ruled a region lying between theHydaspesand the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now thePunjab, in theBattle of the Hydaspesin 326BC.Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of theHydaspesriver, naming oneBucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.The other wasNicaea(Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-dayMong, Punjab.Philostratus the Elderin theLife of Apollonius of Tyanawrites that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to theHelios(Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" ( ). Revolt of the Hellenic army East of Porus's kingdom, near theGanges River, was theNanda EmpireofMagadha, and further east, theGangaridai EmpireofBengalregion of theIndian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at theHyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes ofmen-at-armsand horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousandwar elephants. Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his generalCoenuspleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along theIndus. Along the way his army conquered theMalhi(in modern-dayMultan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army toCarmania(modern southernIran) with generalCraterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore thePersian Gulfshore under his admiralNearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along theGedrosian DesertandMakran.Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[ Last years in Persia Alexander (left) andHephaestion(right): Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship Discovering that many of hissatrapsand military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way toSusa.As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town ofOpis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexanderheld a mass marriageof his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of thetomb of Cyrus the GreatinPasargadaehad desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.Alexander admiredCyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon'sCyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.]During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architectAristobulusto decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb. Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend,Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensivefuneral pyrein Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion. On either 10 or 11 June 323BC, Alexander died in the palace ofNebuchadnezzar II, inBabylon, at age 32.[146]There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details.Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiralNearchusand spent the night and next day drinking withMedius of Larissa.[147]Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[148]In the second account,Diodorusrecounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour ofHeraclesfollowed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.[149]Arrianalso mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim. Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,]foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian andJustinall mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.]The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designatingAntipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence[153]and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[154]Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[152][154]There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[ The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.In a 2014 manuscript in the journalClinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked withVeratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in theAlexander Romance.Veratrum albumpoisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned,Veratrum albumoffers the most plausible cause.Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-dayMavroneriin Arcadia, Greece) that containedcalicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria. Severalnatural causes(diseases) have been suggested, includingmalariaandtyphoid fever. A 1998 article in theNew England Journal of Medicineattributed his death to typhoid fever complicated bybowel perforationand ascendingparalysis.Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious)spondylitisormeningitis.]Other illnesses fit the symptoms, includingacute pancreatitis,West Nile virus,andGuillain-Barr syndrome.[Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt afterHephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health. Post-death events Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoidsarcophagusthat was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was aroyal prerogative.[ While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[]His successor,Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria.

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